Method of Making Silicon Anode Material for Rechargeable Cells

ABSTRACT

There is provided a method of forming silicon anode material for rechargeable cells. The method includes providing a metal matrix, comprising no more than 30 wt % silicon, including silicon structures dispersed therein. The method further includes at least partially etching the metal matrix to at least partially isolate the silicon structures.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/266,683, filed Jan. 3, 2012, which is a national phase application of International Patent Application no. PCT/GB2010/000943, filed May 7, 2010, which claims the benefit of priority of UK Patent Application no. GB0907891.6, filed May 7, 2009, each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The invention relates to a method of forming silicon anode material for rechargeable cells, an electrode for a lithium-ion battery and a lithium-ion battery.

BACKGROUND ART

The recent increase in the use of portable electronic devices such as mobile telephones and notebook computers and the emerging trend of using rechargeable batteries in hybrid electric vehicles has created a need for smaller, lighter, longer lasting rechargeable batteries to provide the power to the above mentioned and other battery powered devices. During the 1990s, lithium rechargeable batteries, specifically lithium-ion batteries, became popular and, in terms of units sold, now dominate the portable electronics marketplace and are set to be applied to new, cost sensitive applications. However, as more and more power hungry functions are added to the above mentioned devices (e.g. cameras on mobile phones), improved and lower cost batteries that store more energy per unit mass and per unit volume are required.

The basic composition of a conventional lithium-ion rechargeable battery cell including a graphite-based anode electrode is shown in FIG. 1. The battery cell includes a single cell but may also include more than one cell.

The battery cell generally comprises a copper current collector 10 for the anode and an aluminium current collector 12 for the cathode, which are externally connectable to a load or to a recharging source as appropriate. A graphite-based composite anode layer 14 overlays the current collector 10 and a lithium containing metal oxide-based composite cathode layer 16 overlays the current collector 12. A porous plastic spacer or separator 20 is provided between the graphite-based composite anode layer 14 and the lithium containing metal oxide-based composite cathode layer 16 and a liquid electrolyte material is dispersed within the porous plastic spacer or separator 20, the composite anode layer 14 and the composite cathode layer 16. In some cases, the porous plastic spacer or separator 20 may be replaced by a polymer electrolyte material and in such cases the polymer electrolyte material is present within both the composite anode layer 14 and the composite cathode layer 16.

When the battery cell is fully charged, lithium has been transported from the lithium containing metal oxide via the electrolyte into the graphite-based layer where it has reacted with the graphite to create the compound, LiC₆. The maximum capacity of such an anode is 372 mAh per gram of graphite. It will be noted that the terms “anode” and “cathode” are used in the sense that the battery is placed across a load.

It is well known that silicon can be used instead of graphite as the active anode material (see, for example, Insertion Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries, M. Winter, J. O. Besenhard, M. E. Spahr, and P. Novak in Adv. Mater. 1998, 10, No. 10). It is generally believed that silicon, when used as an active anode material in a lithium-ion rechargeable cell, can provide a significantly higher capacity than the currently used graphite. Silicon, when converted to the compound Li₂₁Si₅ by reaction with lithium in an electrochemical cell, has a maximum capacity of 4,200 mAh/g, considerably higher than the maximum capacity for graphite. Thus, if graphite can be replaced by silicon in a lithium rechargeable battery, a substantial increase in stored energy per unit mass and per unit volume can be achieved.

In order that the anode material will reversibly react with lithium to charge and discharge the cell, the silicon in the anode should be composed of small particles, which can have any suitable shape, e.g. particles, fibres, structoids or pillared particles (particles that have columns or pillars formed on their surface usually by etching). From WO2007/083155, it is known that the particles will preferably have: (a) a high aspect ratio, i.e. the ratio of the largest dimension to the smallest dimension of a particle, which is preferably about 100:1, (b) a minor dimension (the smallest dimension of the particle) of around 0.08-0.5 μm and (c) a major dimension (the largest dimension of the particle) of the order of 20-300 μm. The high aspect ratio helps in accommodating the large volume change during lithiation and delithiation of the anode, i.e. during charging and discharging of the battery without physically breaking up the particle; this volume change may be of the order of 300%. However, the formation of such small crystalline forms is time-consuming and expensive.

One known method of making silicon anode material is by selective etching of silicon-based materials to create silicon pillars. One such approach is described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,033,936, which is incorporated herein by reference. According to this document, pillars are fabricated by creating a mask by depositing hemispherical islands of caesium chloride on a silicon substrate surface, covering the substrate surface, including the islands, with a film, and removing the hemispherical structures (including the film covering them) from the surface to form a mask with exposed areas where the hemispheres had been. The substrate is then etched in the exposed areas using reactive ion etching and the resist is removed, e.g. by physical sputtering, to leave an array of silicon pillars in the unetched regions, i.e. in the regions between the locations of the hemispheres.

An alternative, chemical approach is described in WO2007/083152 in the name of the present applicants. According to this method, silicon is etched using a solution containing HF and AgNO₃. The mechanism postulated is that isolated nanoclusters of silver are electrolessly deposited on the silicon surface in an initial stage. In a second stage, the silver nanoclusters and the areas of silicon surrounding them act as local electrodes that cause the electrolytic oxidation of the silicon in the areas surrounding the silver nanoclusters to form SiF₆ cations, which diffuse away from the etching site to leave the silicon underlying the silver nanocluster in the form pillars. The etched silicon can either be removed from the silicon substrate or used while still attached to the substrate.

The etching of silicon to form anode material is expensive to carry out and involves highly corrosive materials such as HF, which are difficult to handle.

Other methods for making the same type of high aspect ratio structures have also been presented in the literature including electrochemical etching of silicon, and deposition of fine Si structures using CVD, PECVD and sputtering, or SLS or VLS deposition such as VLS using Au catalysts. All these methods require varying levels of expense but all are above that of the method of the present invention.

Aluminium-silicon alloys are hard and wear-resistant with excellent cast-ability, weld-ability and low shrinkage and are used in very large quantities industrially wherever these properties are required, e.g. in car engine blocks and cylinder heads.

DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides an alternative method of making silicon anode material with structural elements of suitable dimensions, which can be cheaper and use less expensive raw materials than the prior art proposals.

The inventors have recognised that crystalline silicon structures are precipitated within a matrix alloy when certain metal-silicon alloys are cooled; these alloys are those in which the solubility of silicon is low and in which the quantity of intermetallics formed on cooling are low or non-existent. Such silicon structures can have the physical and structure properties required to form anode material for use in lithium ion rechargeable cells.

The first aspect of the present invention provides a method of forming silicon anode material for rechargeable cells, which method comprises: providing a metal matrix, comprising no more than 30 wt % silicon, including silicon structures dispersed therein, and etching the metal matrix to at least partially isolate or expose the silicon structures.

The claimed method provides a more economical process to obtain the anode material than is available in the prior art because the raw materials are relatively inexpensive and readily-available. It also provides a process to obtain anode material that is porous which helps to improve impregnation of the anode by the electrolyte.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing the components of a battery cell; and

FIG. 2 shows the Al—Si phase diagram.

FIG. 3 a shows a Al—Si structure (12 wt % Si) which has been etched in accordance with the claimed method;

FIG. 3 b is a higher magnification picture of part of the surface of the structure shown in FIG. 3 a;

FIG. 4 shows a Al—Si particle (27.5 wt % Si) which has been etched in accordance with the claimed method;

FIG. 5 shows full cell data with negative electrode made using Al—Si (12 wt % Si) etched material; and

FIG. 6 shows half cell data with negative electrode made using Al—Si (12 wt % Si) etched material.

SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In overview, the present invention provides a method of producing silicon structures from using the growth of silicon precipitated within a metal-silicon alloy when cooled. The metal is then at least partially etched away to leave silicon-comprising structures. The metal is preferably aluminium because Al does not easily react with, or dissolve, Si and also because the Al—Si system provides a liquid eutectic without forming intermetallic compounds. Au—Si and Ag—Si are alternatives, but are too expensive unless a rigorous Au or Ag recovery regime is put in place. Tertiary alloys with eutectics and poor Si solubility/reactivity can also be used, e.g. aluminium alloys, such as Al—Mg—Si or Al—Cu—Si.

The structures may be discrete structural elements such as particles, flakes, wires, pillars or other structures. The structures may also be porous structures comprising structural elements, such as an agglomeration of structural elements in the form of, for example, a honeycomb structure. The structures may retain some of the metal. Although reference is made herein to silicon structures, it should be understood that at least some metal may still be present in the structure. In fact, it may be advantageous to retain some metal. It should be understood that the structures may be (mono- or poly-) crystalline or amorphous and, when they are crystalline, each structure may be composed of one or more crystals.

The inventors have realised that the silicon structures contained in the solidified metal alloy are highly suitable as a lithium-ion anode material; some residual metal may remain after etching but this does not appear to interfere with the performance of the anode material.

Aluminium dissolves extremely little in silicon and silicon is not readily dissolved in solid aluminium when cooled to room temperature. The eutectic of an Al—Si melt is approx 12.6% Si, as can be seen from the Al—Si phase diagram is shown in FIG. 2. When cooling an aluminium-silicon alloy that contains more silicon than is soluble in solid aluminium, silicon structures can be precipitated with fine dimensions including spikes, stars and flakes.

Silicon can be obtained by two mechanisms; firstly, when a melt containing more silicon than is present in a eutectic mixture cools, it precipitates silicon structures until the composition of the melt reaches the eutectic point, where the melt solidifies. This precipitated silicon can be used as the silicon structures in the present invention. Secondly the solidified solid eutectic mixture itself includes segregated silicon that can also be used as the silicon structures in the present invention. There is an obvious economic benefit from the use of a melt containing higher silicon contents since the yield of silicon from the melt is higher. However, the shape and size of the silicon structures from these two types of mechanisms are important, as discussed below, and will depend on the process conditions (such as cooling rate) that are applied and that can be achieved with the equipment available and so the melt composition and mechanism used for forming the silicon structures should be chosen to provide an optimum yield of the silicon structures of the desired shape and size.

As mentioned, a high silicon content in the metal-silicon alloy is preferred since it provides the highest yield of silicon structures that are the component material of interest. The maximum practical amount of silicon in commercial aluminium casting alloys is 22-24%, but alloys made by powder metallurgy can be up to 50% and spray forming up to 70%, although the latter two methods are more expensive and therefore less preferred unless very high silicon wt % is required. Powder metallurgy and spray forming techniques are used for so-called “master alloys” used in metal making. In embodiments, the silicon content is less than 30 wt %.

The possible range of silicon concentrations in the melt is very wide but the amount is dictated by the need to obtain, on cooling, silicon structures having structural elements having the correct shape and size for use in a battery anode, which are: (a) a high aspect ratio (at least 5 and preferably at least 10), a minor dimension of 0.1-2 μm and (c) a major dimension of 10 μm or more. A high aspect ratio gives a high number of interconnections between the silicon structures in an electrode for electrical continuity. These dimensions cover such shapes as rods, wires or plates which can be isolated elements or integral elements of a larger connected structure, such as a porous structure. The high aspect ratio helps in accommodating the large volume change during lithiation and delithiation of the anode, i.e. during charging and discharging of the battery without physically breaking up the particle; this volume change may be of the order of 300%. The size constraint region of 0.1-2 μm provides a balance between, on the one hand, providing a robust structure to increase the electrode's survival during successive charging and discharging cycles and, on the other hand, providing very small or thin particles, which will give a higher surface area which in turn tends to result in a higher first cycle loss (irreversible consumption of lithium) during the first charging cycle of the Li-ion battery.

However, the shape and size of the silicon structures are dictated not only by the composition of the melt but also by the cooling conditions, especially the rate of cooling. The faster the cooling rate, the smaller the grain size. The grain shape and size can also be altered by tempering the alloy and working the alloy (either hot or cold working) to provide the required grain size and shape. Additives can also influence the grain size (see below).

Higher levels of silicon (so called ‘over-eutectic alloys containing 12-25% Si or more) may have larger grain sizes, which require much faster chilling or additives during casting to maintain the silicon structural features required. Providing the structural elements are correctly sized and shaped, the preference for higher silicon content in the melt will be advantageous for processing and cost efficiency.

In the use of Aluminium-Silicon alloy there will be an optimum range of silicon proportion to use in the alloy. The primary intention for the structure of the silicon is to create high aspect ratio structural elements, with the length >5 times the width and width being less than 2 μm, which are more resilient to breaking down during a cell's lithiation cycling. Where such structural elements are contained within a larger porous structure (for example, a porous particle) this provides the added benefit of improving electrolyte impregnation of the anode material. The microstructure may not be as fine a structure when the silicon proportion is increased greatly above the eutectic proportion (12.6 wt %) in the aluminium silicon alloy. Furthermore, obtaining the required structure may require much more careful cooling in solidification. FIGS. 3 and 4 respectively show 12 wt % and 27.5 wt % aluminium-silicon alloys produced by spray atomisation to make powder which was etched to leave the silicon matrix only. FIG. 3 b is a magnification of part of the surface of the particle shown in FIG. 3 a. In the 27.5 wt % alloy, inclusions can be seen where silicon-rich areas have formed during solidification of the alloy when compared to the fine structure which is mostly continuous on the 12 wt % alloy. Despite having these silicon rich areas, it is considered that the 27.5 wt % Si alloy's overall silicon structure may have a sufficiently fine average microstructure with good interconnection to prevent fracturing during lithiation and so still be a viable method. However at significantly higher silicon wt % (above 30 wt %) the silicon matrix will have a much greater proportion of Si-rich areas. Therefore, keeping the silicon proportion to at most 30 wt % is desirable so that the microstructure is largely (in the range 30%-100%) made from high-aspect ratio structural elements, and not requiring difficult to achieve process conditions to create fine silicon structural elements throughout the alloy.

A factor influencing the effectiveness of the silicon structures comprising structural elements as the active material in a Li-ion battery is the porosity of the porous structures. This may be as important as the microstructural dimensions and/or aspect ratio of the silicon structural elements. The 30 wt % ratio of silicon is additionally at an almost optimum maximum level for the porosity of the resulting silicon anode when used in an anode due to it having a compatible material to void ratio to allow the volumetric expansion of silicon during lithiation. Experiments by the inventors have shown that the size of the pores does not appear to greatly affect the performance of the cell, so long as the pores are open to accept electrolyte and allow lithiation. There is evidence that low porosity anodes (e.g. heavily calendared) with silicon as the predominant active material do not cycle for nearly as long as higher porosity anodes. For example, the expansion of the silicon matrix during lithiation to Li₁₃Si₄ at 3100 mAh/g is around 205%, which means that the volume of the silicon when lithiated will be a factor of 3.05 times larger than its starting volume. An initial open porosity leaving 30% material and 60-70% voids (not including any binders or other additives) therefore partially allows for this expansion whilst minimising detrimental ‘heave’ of the anode, which would result in swelling of a battery. Not all of the void volume will be filled with the expanded silicon—there will still be some heave (or swelling) of the electrode mass and the remaining void space will retain good access for electrolyte into the body of the material. It will also allow sufficient expansion when there are higher orders of lithiation used which can theoretically go up to Li₂₂Si₅ at 4200 mA/g. The inventors have recognised the interplay between all these factors and identified a range of silicon content which provides an advantageous metal matrix for use in a method for forming an improved silicon anode material.

The Al—Si process to form a metal matrix allows accurate control of the porosity of the porous structures, because it is possible to control the porosity by altering the amount of silicon incorporated in the initial Al—Si alloy by weight.

Common Al—Si alloys contain 7-18% Si and are used, for example, in car engines; they have fine structures and flakes of silicon (of the order of 0.5-1.0 μm thick and >10 μm long) in metallurgical specimens and such alloys may be used in the present invention especially when they have silicon towards the top of this silicon range.

The precipitated silicon can be isolated from the bulk alloy by etching away the bulk metal, provided the etching method does not etch the silicon structures but does etch the metal. Etchants may be liquid or gaseous phase and may include additives or sub-processes to remove any by-product build up which slows etching. Etching can be done chemically, e.g. (in the case of Al) using ferric chloride, or electrochemically using copper sulphate/sodium chloride electrolytes. The vast majority of known aluminium etchants/methods do not attack the fine silicon structural elements, leaving them intact after the aluminium has been etched away. Any aluminium or aluminium silicide intermetallics remaining after etching, for example adhering to the crystalline silicon, can be tolerated when the silicon is used to form an anode as they are themselves excellent Li-ion anode candidates, and so long as any aluminium and intermetallic structures have comparable thickness to the silicon they can be expected to survive Li insertion cycling. In fact, aluminium and intermetallics may also aid in making electrical contact between the silicon and metal electrode.

In addition to the factors discussed above that dictate the length and thickness of the aluminium structures so that they are suitable for the application of Li-ion batteries (the amount of silicon in the melt, the solidification rate and any post-solidification heating and/or working, e.g. tempering), the silicon structures produced in the alloy can be controlled in fineness, length and structure by additives (e.g. Sb, Cu, Mg, Zn, Mn, Cr, Co, Mo, Ni, Be, Zr, Fe, Na, Sr, P). Some additives may be deleterious in effect to producing the high aspect ratio structures desired, whereas some may allow improved structure or ease of manufacture. The effects of these additives/contaminants is reportedly extensively in the literature, see Key to Metals Aluminium-silicon alloys, www.keytometals.com/Article80.

The invention provides an economical way of producing fine structured silicon for Li-ion battery anodes. The method is advantageous because aluminium is relatively cheap and the silicon used may be cheap metallurgical grade silicon. Furthermore, aluminium-silicon alloys are commercially available, as discussed above, and again are relatively cheap. Foundries which can produce the alloy with a required metallurgy (and hence silicon structures) are widespread.

In addition, aluminium silicon alloy is relatively easy and cheap to etch since the etchants of aluminium are cheap and widely available, including acids, alkalis and even salts when etching electrochemically. The most common commercially practised method of aluminium etching involves caustic etching using an etchant containing 10-20% NaOH. The etchant will be selected to prevent substantial attack of the silicon by the etchant, and so a lower concentration of NaOH may be preferred.

After fully etching away the metal matrix, the silicon structures will be released into the etchant. These will generally need cleaning to remove contaminants, by-products (e.g. aluminium hydroxide in caustic etching)) and remnants generated during etching, which may be achieved using acids or other chemicals, followed by rinsing and separating the silicon structures from the liquid, which may be achieved by filtering, centrifuging or other separation method. The structures may then be handled in liquid suspension.

Once the silicon structures are released (with optional particle sizing) they can be handled similarly to current silicon fibre materials to prepare an electrode (e.g. mixing with binder, coating, drying, calendaring etc). They can then be used to form an anode as set-out in WO2007/083155, WO2008/139157, WO2009/010758, WO2009/010759 and WO2009/010757, all incorporated herein by reference.

Although aluminium is preferred as the main component of the silicon alloy from which the silicon structures are precipitated, the skilled person will understand that other metals that will precipitate silicon and can be etched may be used.

The invention will now be illustrated by reference to one or more of the following non-limiting examples:

Example 1

The steps of etching an aluminium silicon alloy to obtain silicon structures are:

-   1. Acquire from a foundry or produce an Al—Si alloy with the desired     silicon particle structure (rods or plates with smallest dimension     0.1-2 μm, larger dimensions >5 μm). The making of such alloys is     commonly applied in industry for making the 4XXX group of aluminium     casting alloys (see     http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/abstracts/M7-8.html; O. Uzun et     al. Production and Structure of Rapidly Solidified Al—Si Alloys,     Turk J. Phys 25 (2001), 455-466; S. P. Nakanorov et al. Structural     and mechanical properties of Al—Si alloys obtained by fast cooling     of a levitated melt. Mat. Sci and Eng A 390 (2005) 63-69). An     example would be a commercially available Al—Si 12% alloy as cast     that is cooled at a rate of approx 100° Ks⁻¹ and that is subjected     to no further post-solidification heat treatment. -   2. Etch the aluminium matrix away using a mixed acid reagent or     caustic etching, which is a commonly practised industrial processes.     Keller's reagent (2 ml HF, 3 ml HCl, 5 ml HNO3, 190 ml water) can be     used as an acid etchant, especially for small samples for use in     metallurgical testing. Caustic etchants e.g. NaOH 10%, can be used     commercially for bulk etching. The NaOH concentration may be reduced     if there is evidence of etching of the Si structures; the caustic     etchant can include an oxidising agent, e.g. 8 g KMn0₄+2 g NaOH in     200 ml water. During etching, the alloy is surrounded by a filter     (<10 μm hole size), e.g. a woven polypropylene etching bag, to     contain the released Si structures. The aluminium matrix will be     substantially etched away leaving silicon structures free in the     liquor and/or attached to a substrate of remaining aluminium.     Attached structures can be freed using ultrasonic agitation. -   3. Neutralise the etchant and separate the silicon structures from     the liquor using centrifuging and/or filtration, which may be     achieved using the etching bag. The Si structures released by     etching are collected and subjected to an acid rinse (in the case of     caustic etching) to remove any contaminants or by-products deposited     during etching. -   4. Rinse with deionised water 1-5 times until etchants are removed     by suspending the structures in the aqueous solution. -   5. Isolate the structures from the rinsing water by filtering and/or     centrifuging to the required maximum moisture level, which may     involve a drying step.

Example 2

-   -   1. The starting Al—Si matrix material is particles of Argon or         Nitrogen-fired 12 wt % Si—Al alloy with initial particle size         ranges 12-63 μm. A typical chemical analysis shows 11.7%         Si+3.49% Bi, 0.45% Fe, 0.28% Mn.     -   2. Use an etch solution having a composition by reactants of: 5         ml concentrated 70% Nitric Acid (15.8M); 3 ml concentrated 36%         hydrochloric acid (11.65M); 2 ml 40% hydrofluoric acid; and 100         ml water. The molar composition of the etch solution is         therefore: 0.72M nitric acid; 0.32M hydrochloric acid; and 0.41M         hydrofluoric acid.     -   3. Add 1.4 grams of Al—Si alloy per 100 ml etchant to the         etchant in an HDPE container with a magnetic follower and stir         the alloy/etch mixture at room temperature for 1-2 hours on a         slow setting.     -   4. Turn off stirrer and leave for 16 hours for reaction to go to         completion. Silicon structures settle at bottom of reaction         vessel.     -   5. Pour off the spent etch and rinse the silicon structures with         deionised water until they are pH 5/7. Between rinses, the         structures may settle out slowly by gravity. Optionally, use a         centrifuge to speed up the process.

FIG. 3 a shows an SEM Al—Si structure (12 wt % Si) which has been etched in accordance with the above. FIG. 3 b is a higher magnification of part of the surface in 3 a. A network of fine silicon structures with smallest dimensions less than 2 μm (the majority have smallest dimensions less than 0.5 μm) between the pores and valleys can be clearly seen.

Example 3

As Example 2, except using 27.5 wt % silicon and the loading level during etching (step 3) is 1.5 gram per 100 ml etchant.

FIG. 4 shows a Al—Si structure (27.5 wt % Si) which has been etched in accordance with the above method. As in FIG. 3, the network of fine silicon structures can be observed together with a few larger particulate silicon structures of dimensions 2-5 μm. If the starting amount of silicon in the pre-etched alloy is increased much above 30 wt %, it is expected that the number and size of these larger silicon structures will increase and this is not preferable.

Example 4

As Example 2 except (a) the composition of the etch solution (step 2) is: 5% concentrated nitric acid; 80% concentrated phosphoric acid; and 5% glacial acetic acid; and (b) the loading level (step 3) is 50 ml etchant to 1 gram alloy.

During etching the reaction temperature may rise by 10-15° C. Most of the reaction is completed in 1-2 hours and the temperature falls back to room temperature.

Etching can be performed more vigorously by adding less water. This causes a considerable increase in the etchant temperature. For example, a two-fold increase in concentration leads to a temperature of 50-60° C.

EDX (energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) analysis of a batch of 12 wt % silicon showed that there was less than 1% Al retained in the bulk silicon. There may be traces of Al left in the particle. Aluminium is a good high capacity anode element in its own right and aids electrical connectivity. It may therefore be preferable that some aluminium is retained in the silicon structure, or even connects one or more silicon structures together.

The resulting silicon structures can then be used to make a silicon anode in a known manner (after drying if necessary), as per any silicon or carbon anodic materials, e.g. mix with an appropriate binder (e.g. PAA or CMC), conductive carbon (for example, one of or a mixture of carbon black, acetylene black, fibres, carbon nanotubes etc.), then coat and dry on a copper foil current collector and calendar if required.

The silicon structures may optionally be carbon coated by, for example, thermal pyrolysis. The silicon structures (coated or uncoated) may be mixed with other active anode materials (materials which can take in and release lithium ions), for example graphite and/or hard carbon, in a composite electrode.

FIG. 5 is a plot of the discharge capacity and efficiency of a cell containing an anode made with silicon structures formed by the method of Example 2, over 100 cycles. The components of the cell are shown in FIG. 1. The cathode (16) was a mixed metal oxide (MMO) material Li_(1+x)Ni_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O₂ on an aluminium current collector (12). The anode (14) is a mixture of 76 wt % Si particles, 12 wt % carbon black and 12 wt % PAA binder on a copper current collector (10). Inbetween the cathode and anode is a porous separator (20) supplied by Tonen. The cathode, anode and separator were impregnated with an electrolyte consisting of lithium hexafluorophosphate, dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate and ethyl methyl carbonate (in the ratio 3:7 vol %)

FIG. 6 shows the voltage across a half cell (where the cathode has been replaced by Lithium metal foil) and the anode made with silicon structures formed by the method of Example 2, as described above, during the first cycle charge-discharge.

For example, in order to make an alloy containing dispersed fine silicon structures, aluminium and silicon (12% silicon balance aluminium) are melted together at around 800-1000° C., which is well above the eutectic temperature of 577° C., so that they form a liquid alloy. The melt is then cooled at rates up to 100° K/s. Such a cooling period gives relatively coarse elongated flake-like structures of up to 20 μm in length and 1-5 μm wide (1-5 μm in minimum dimension) as described in “Development of Al—Si—Mg Alloys for Semi-Solid Processing and Silicon Spheroidization Treatment (SST) for Al—Si Cast Alloys”, Thesis Swiss Federal Institute Of Technology Zurich, E. Ogris 2002. A ‘modified’ alloy, e.g. by including a small amount of Na or Sr in the alloy, or with rapid cooling such as ‘chill casting’, results in a more fibrous structure with smaller structures 5-10 μm in length and a sub micron width (the smallest dimension), e.g. 0.1-1 μm, as again described and shown in SEM pictures in the above referenced Ogris thesis.

Further thermal processing of the Al—Si alloy is discouraged since this can eventually lead to spheroidising of the structures which is not desired for the application because it reduces the aspect ratio of the structures. 

1-25. (canceled)
 26. An electroactive material comprising silicon structures that have been at least partially isolated from a solidified metal silicon alloy comprising no more than 30 wt % silicon, wherein the silicon structures comprise silicon-comprising structural elements, wherein the structural elements have a minor dimension of less than 2 μm and a length of greater than 5 times the minor dimension.
 27. An electroactive material according to claim 26, wherein the structural elements have an aspect ratio of at least 5 and a minor dimension of at least 0.1 to 2 μm.
 28. An electroactive material according to claim 26, wherein the silicon structures have a major dimension of at least 5 μm.
 29. An electroactive material according to claim 26, wherein 30 to 100% of the structural elements have an aspect ratio of at least
 5. 30. An electroactive material according to claim 26, wherein the structural elements are selected from the group consisting of flakes, fibres and ribbons.
 31. An electroactive material according to claim 26, wherein the silicon structures comprise an agglomeration of integrally connected structural elements.
 32. An electroactive material according to claim 31, wherein the integrally connected elements are in the form of a honeycomb structure.
 33. An electroactive material according to claim 26, which further comprises residual metal from the metal-silicon alloy.
 34. An electroactive material according to claim 33, wherein the residual metal is aluminium or an aluminium silicide intermetallic.
 35. An electroactive material according to claim 26, wherein the silicon structures further comprise a carbon coating.
 36. An electroactive material according to claim 26, wherein at least 80% of the structural elements have an aspect ratio of at least 5, and a minor dimension of less than 2 μm.
 37. An electroactive material according to claim 26, which has a porosity of 60 to 70%.
 38. An electroactive material according to claim 26, which further comprises one or more components selected from a binder and a conductive carbon.
 39. An electrode for a lithium-ion battery comprising the electroactive material according to claim
 26. 40. An electrochemical cell comprising an electrode according to claim 39 and a cathode.
 41. An electroactive material according to claim 26, made by a method which comprises: providing a solidified metal silicon alloy comprising no more than 30 wt % silicon, including the silicon structures dispersed therein, and at least partially isolating the silicon structures from the solidified metal silicon alloy.
 42. An electroactive material, made by a method which comprises: providing a metal matrix, comprising no more than 30 wt % silicon, including silicon structures dispersed therein, and at least partially etching the metal matrix to at least partially isolate the silicon structures.
 43. An electroactive material, comprising silicon structures that comprise silicon-comprising structural elements having a minor dimension of less than 2 μm and a length of greater than 5 times the minor dimension, and which further comprises residual metal.
 44. An electroactive material according to claim 43, wherein the residual metal is aluminium or an aluminium silicide intermetallic.
 45. An electroactive material according to claim 43, wherein the silicon structures have a major dimension of at least 5 μm.
 46. An electroactive material according to claim 43, wherein 30 to 100% of the structural elements have an aspect ratio of at least
 5. 47. An electroactive material according to claim 43, wherein at least 80% of the silicon structures have structural elements having an aspect ratio of at least 5, and a minor dimension of less than 2 μm.
 48. An electroactive material according to claim 43, which has a porosity of 60 to 70%.
 49. An electroactive material according to claim 43, wherein the silicon structures comprise an agglomeration of integrally connected structural elements. 